Indian Caste System...
Indian Caste System : Shaping the Occupations and Society
Introduction:-
The Indian Caste System is historically one of the major dimensions where people in india are socially differentiated through class , religion , region, tribe, gender, and language. The Indian Caste System is considered a closed system of stratification , which means that a person's social status is obligated to which caste they were born into. There are limits on interaction and behaviour with people from another social status.
Caste Structure:-
Defining the word "caste" itself is harder than thought to be. Risley defines it as "a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name; claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling; and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community" . It can also be defined as an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior or interior rank of social esteem in comparison with other such subdivision. Caste name is generally associated with a specific occupation and , as mentioned before , is a closed stratification , which makes it endogamous . The Indian Caste System is a classification of people into four hierarchically ranked castes called varnas . They are classified according to occupation and determine access to wealth , power and privilege.
In modern India economic competition and education are predominant and the Brahmans occupy this position in both aspects (Sekhon, 44). Following the Brahmans are the Kshatriyas or political rulers and soldiers.
Next are the Vaishyas, or merchants. Then come the Shudra, who are usually laborers , peasants , artisans, and servants . Shudras were thought to not have any special abilities and were considered only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes.
Shudras enjoyed no rights or privileges , and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras . They were also not allowed to enter temples and could only serve the upper three castes as a slave , barber, blacksmith or cobbler(Gurjari). They too supported the anti-Brahminical groups that came about.
At the very bottom are those considered the "untouchables". These individuals performed occupations that were considered unclean and polluting , such as scavenging and skinning dead animals and are considered outcastes . The Hindu law books insisted that there were only four varnas and never a fifth , which was used as a reason to not accept the tribal people of India. They were therefore not considered to be included in the ranked castes. In some cases , the untouchables could face criminal charges if they polluted certain things with their presence . For example, it was a criminal offense for a member of an excluded caste knowingly to pollute a temple by his presence(Hampton). They are also forbidden to enter the streets in which the houses of the upper castes were situated , and there were many customs and laws that kept them beyond the villages and towns.
Characteristics:-
The two most important characteristics of the Indian Caste System have to do with endogamy and occupational restriction. Any violation of this results in excommunication from one's family and caste. When it comes to occupation, every caste is associated with a particular one to which it's members are required to follow. Another characteristic is that every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regards to diet and has its own laws which govern the food habit of the members.
Another is the social interaction between castes . There are strict barriers when it comes to the mixing of a superior caste with an inferior caste. Hence, under the caste system every caste abides by well established customs and well defined norms of interaction. A forth idea is the belief of purity and pollution. Cleanliness is considered to be important in Hinduism, and the caste system enforces this idea. Untouchability was thus a means of exclusivism , a social device that became religious only by being drawn into the pollution--purity complex. Therefore it was believed that the higher castes were more pure and less polluted , while the lower castes were regarded as less pure and more polluted (Pyakurel).
Movements and Political Policies against Castes :-
There are many movements and govermental action that tooks place pre- and post independence in order to overcome and attempts to eliminate the inequalities and justices associated with the caste system. During the national movements, Gandhi began using the team "Harijans" (God's people) to refers to the untouchables in order to encourage a shift towards the lower castes . Many lower castes members , however, found the term to be patronizing. The Census of india had started by the British in the late 19th century , and in 1935 , "the British government of India came up with a list of 400 group considered untouchables , as well as many tribal groups, that would be accorded special privileges in order to overcome deprivation and discrimination. Those groups included on this list came to be termed Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In the 1970s, however, many leaders of castes considered untouchables started calling themselves Dalits" . The anticaste Dalit movement began with Jyotirao Phule in the mid 19th century , and he started a movement for education and the upliftment of women, Shudra's, and Dalits, and movement spread to many parts of India . He also worked to abolish the idea of "untouchability" which meant getting rid of restrictions on entry into temples and finding a place for Dalits within Hinduism.
After 1910, however , Dalits leaders started focusing on distancing themselves from Hinduism and began to advocate for a separate electorate for the Dalits . But Gandhi, who was one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress , tried to instead encourage the incorporation of Dalits as part of reformed Hinduism.
Another prominent movement was the Dalit movement under B.R.Ambedkar, which began between the 1920s and 1930s. He campaigned for greater rights for Dalits in British India, and even after independence. Both Ambedkar and Gandhi were advocates for the abolishment of the caste system, but they disagreed on the means to go about it. Gandhi believed "untouchability to be a moral issue that could be abolished through goodwill and change of heart among the upper caste Hindus"(Sekhon, 48). Ambedkar however believed that "the subordination of Dalits was primarily economic and Political , and Political , and could only be overcome by changing the social structure through legal, political, and educational means"(Sekhon, 48).
There are three main categories of people that have been identified as eligible for preferential policies that reserve seats in legislatures in goverment jobs, in public sector enterprises, and in state supervised educational institutions in terms of their population proportion in their area. They have also been promised special programs and are legally protected against discrimination . The first group is the Scheduled Castes (SCs) , which includes communities who are considered to be untouchables (Daniel). The second are the Scheduled Tribes (STs). This category includes in it those communities who did not not accept the caste system and preferred to resides deep in the jungles, forests, and mountains of india, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals (Daniel). The third is the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) . Which includes in it castes who belong to the Shudra Varna, former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions ,and nomads and Tribes who made a living from criminal acts (Daniel). They are considered to be affected by "backwardness" based on social and economic disadvantages. It is not clear however what criterion identifies OBCs and there is an ongoing disagreement over whether to assign people this status on the basis of caste or on economic criteria.
In the 1950s the reservation system for SCs and STs began, but the individual states were the ones that were to determine which would be identified as OBCs . Many southern states identified economically disadvantages castes as OBCs, but there has been considerable opposition to implementing these policies in other Indian states. The central goverment appointed a commision headed by B.P. Mandal to look into the issues, and by 1978, the Mandal Commision report was completed . It was concluded that caste was completed. It was concluded that caste was the main contributing factor to social and economic backwardness. Many seats in state institutions were reserved for the three groups. The commission recommended that 27 percent of seats be reserved for OBCs , in addition to 15 percent for SCs and 7 percent for STs . Unfortunately ,the government did not implement these policies in fear of large scale opposition from the people , but in 1990, the Janta Dal government "attempted partial implementation of recommendation leading to widespread unrest and opposition from middle and upper- caste youths , intellectuals and elites"(Sekhon, 50).
Modern India:-
Relationship between castes have become more relaxed today. There is more food sharing between castes and a lot more eating done at local restaurants where caste distinctions are less likely to be made. One of the biggest changes that took place in India was occupational pursuits among men (Sekhon, 43) (and women later on). Earlier, most men did not veer away from their caste linked occupations, such as blacksmithing and pottery making. Many have now taken up newer occupation that do not relate to their caste , such as government jobs, teaching , retail and service and machine repair . Wealth and power in the village is now less associated with caste than before, and landownership has become more diversified (Sekhon, 44). Also, the idea that purity and pollution is caused by the lower castes has diminished a good amount . It has, however , only somewhat diminished in the public , whereas behind closed doors and on ceremonial occasions, purification rituals related to castes status are still observed . Endogamy is still enforced among families , but not as strict as before. A women's status is still significantly tied to the status of the male , but education and awareness of equalization for women has widely spread throughout India. Although discrimination on the basis of castes has been outlawed in India , caste has become a means for competing for access to resource and power in modern India, such as educational opportunities, new occupation, and improvements in life chances . This trend is connected to India's preferential policies and the implementation of these policies.
Implementation has been very uneven in the midst of debates and controversies over the preferential policies , but they have still had a very significant impact on many sections among the lower castes and classes. There has been increase in representation of SCs , STs, and OBCs in elected offices and they have acquired strong local support. They have also become an important element in electoral politics and have gone on to form strong political parties in various regions . People from these disadvantages groups have largely made their way into government jobs as well as levels of educational institutions. (Sekhon, 50).
Unfortunately,however, only a relatively small proportion of the lower castes have benefited from these preferential policies . Even thought there is also more overt hostility and violence expressed against the lower castes and classes in many parts of India . For examples, in parts of Bihar, which is a state in eastern India , upper caste landowners formed a private army in 1994 called the Ranvir Sena to "protect" themselves from the lower castes. Although this was outlawed , the Ranvir Sena had carried out 20 massacres of Dalits by early 1999. Hostility is also expressed by the many people who support the removal of reserved government jobs and in institutions for technical education , particularly on the part of many from the traditionally higher castes who are economically disadvantages. Individual achievements , merit, as well as economic position are also still significantly affected by caste (Sekhon,51).
The Indian Caste System is historically one of the major dimensions where people in india are socially differentiated through class , religion , region, tribe, gender, and language. The Indian Caste System is considered a closed system of stratification , which means that a person's social status is obligated to which caste they were born into. There are limits on interaction and behaviour with people from another social status.
Caste Structure:-
Defining the word "caste" itself is harder than thought to be. Risley defines it as "a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name; claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling; and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community" . It can also be defined as an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior or interior rank of social esteem in comparison with other such subdivision. Caste name is generally associated with a specific occupation and , as mentioned before , is a closed stratification , which makes it endogamous . The Indian Caste System is a classification of people into four hierarchically ranked castes called varnas . They are classified according to occupation and determine access to wealth , power and privilege.
In modern India economic competition and education are predominant and the Brahmans occupy this position in both aspects (Sekhon, 44). Following the Brahmans are the Kshatriyas or political rulers and soldiers.
Next are the Vaishyas, or merchants. Then come the Shudra, who are usually laborers , peasants , artisans, and servants . Shudras were thought to not have any special abilities and were considered only capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes.
Shudras enjoyed no rights or privileges , and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the mantras . They were also not allowed to enter temples and could only serve the upper three castes as a slave , barber, blacksmith or cobbler(Gurjari). They too supported the anti-Brahminical groups that came about.
At the very bottom are those considered the "untouchables". These individuals performed occupations that were considered unclean and polluting , such as scavenging and skinning dead animals and are considered outcastes . The Hindu law books insisted that there were only four varnas and never a fifth , which was used as a reason to not accept the tribal people of India. They were therefore not considered to be included in the ranked castes. In some cases , the untouchables could face criminal charges if they polluted certain things with their presence . For example, it was a criminal offense for a member of an excluded caste knowingly to pollute a temple by his presence(Hampton). They are also forbidden to enter the streets in which the houses of the upper castes were situated , and there were many customs and laws that kept them beyond the villages and towns.
Characteristics:-
The two most important characteristics of the Indian Caste System have to do with endogamy and occupational restriction. Any violation of this results in excommunication from one's family and caste. When it comes to occupation, every caste is associated with a particular one to which it's members are required to follow. Another characteristic is that every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regards to diet and has its own laws which govern the food habit of the members.
Another is the social interaction between castes . There are strict barriers when it comes to the mixing of a superior caste with an inferior caste. Hence, under the caste system every caste abides by well established customs and well defined norms of interaction. A forth idea is the belief of purity and pollution. Cleanliness is considered to be important in Hinduism, and the caste system enforces this idea. Untouchability was thus a means of exclusivism , a social device that became religious only by being drawn into the pollution--purity complex. Therefore it was believed that the higher castes were more pure and less polluted , while the lower castes were regarded as less pure and more polluted (Pyakurel).
Movements and Political Policies against Castes :-
There are many movements and govermental action that tooks place pre- and post independence in order to overcome and attempts to eliminate the inequalities and justices associated with the caste system. During the national movements, Gandhi began using the team "Harijans" (God's people) to refers to the untouchables in order to encourage a shift towards the lower castes . Many lower castes members , however, found the term to be patronizing. The Census of india had started by the British in the late 19th century , and in 1935 , "the British government of India came up with a list of 400 group considered untouchables , as well as many tribal groups, that would be accorded special privileges in order to overcome deprivation and discrimination. Those groups included on this list came to be termed Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In the 1970s, however, many leaders of castes considered untouchables started calling themselves Dalits" . The anticaste Dalit movement began with Jyotirao Phule in the mid 19th century , and he started a movement for education and the upliftment of women, Shudra's, and Dalits, and movement spread to many parts of India . He also worked to abolish the idea of "untouchability" which meant getting rid of restrictions on entry into temples and finding a place for Dalits within Hinduism.
After 1910, however , Dalits leaders started focusing on distancing themselves from Hinduism and began to advocate for a separate electorate for the Dalits . But Gandhi, who was one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress , tried to instead encourage the incorporation of Dalits as part of reformed Hinduism.
Another prominent movement was the Dalit movement under B.R.Ambedkar, which began between the 1920s and 1930s. He campaigned for greater rights for Dalits in British India, and even after independence. Both Ambedkar and Gandhi were advocates for the abolishment of the caste system, but they disagreed on the means to go about it. Gandhi believed "untouchability to be a moral issue that could be abolished through goodwill and change of heart among the upper caste Hindus"(Sekhon, 48). Ambedkar however believed that "the subordination of Dalits was primarily economic and Political , and Political , and could only be overcome by changing the social structure through legal, political, and educational means"(Sekhon, 48).
There are three main categories of people that have been identified as eligible for preferential policies that reserve seats in legislatures in goverment jobs, in public sector enterprises, and in state supervised educational institutions in terms of their population proportion in their area. They have also been promised special programs and are legally protected against discrimination . The first group is the Scheduled Castes (SCs) , which includes communities who are considered to be untouchables (Daniel). The second are the Scheduled Tribes (STs). This category includes in it those communities who did not not accept the caste system and preferred to resides deep in the jungles, forests, and mountains of india, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals (Daniel). The third is the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) . Which includes in it castes who belong to the Shudra Varna, former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions ,and nomads and Tribes who made a living from criminal acts (Daniel). They are considered to be affected by "backwardness" based on social and economic disadvantages. It is not clear however what criterion identifies OBCs and there is an ongoing disagreement over whether to assign people this status on the basis of caste or on economic criteria.
In the 1950s the reservation system for SCs and STs began, but the individual states were the ones that were to determine which would be identified as OBCs . Many southern states identified economically disadvantages castes as OBCs, but there has been considerable opposition to implementing these policies in other Indian states. The central goverment appointed a commision headed by B.P. Mandal to look into the issues, and by 1978, the Mandal Commision report was completed . It was concluded that caste was completed. It was concluded that caste was the main contributing factor to social and economic backwardness. Many seats in state institutions were reserved for the three groups. The commission recommended that 27 percent of seats be reserved for OBCs , in addition to 15 percent for SCs and 7 percent for STs . Unfortunately ,the government did not implement these policies in fear of large scale opposition from the people , but in 1990, the Janta Dal government "attempted partial implementation of recommendation leading to widespread unrest and opposition from middle and upper- caste youths , intellectuals and elites"(Sekhon, 50).
Modern India:-
Relationship between castes have become more relaxed today. There is more food sharing between castes and a lot more eating done at local restaurants where caste distinctions are less likely to be made. One of the biggest changes that took place in India was occupational pursuits among men (Sekhon, 43) (and women later on). Earlier, most men did not veer away from their caste linked occupations, such as blacksmithing and pottery making. Many have now taken up newer occupation that do not relate to their caste , such as government jobs, teaching , retail and service and machine repair . Wealth and power in the village is now less associated with caste than before, and landownership has become more diversified (Sekhon, 44). Also, the idea that purity and pollution is caused by the lower castes has diminished a good amount . It has, however , only somewhat diminished in the public , whereas behind closed doors and on ceremonial occasions, purification rituals related to castes status are still observed . Endogamy is still enforced among families , but not as strict as before. A women's status is still significantly tied to the status of the male , but education and awareness of equalization for women has widely spread throughout India. Although discrimination on the basis of castes has been outlawed in India , caste has become a means for competing for access to resource and power in modern India, such as educational opportunities, new occupation, and improvements in life chances . This trend is connected to India's preferential policies and the implementation of these policies.
Implementation has been very uneven in the midst of debates and controversies over the preferential policies , but they have still had a very significant impact on many sections among the lower castes and classes. There has been increase in representation of SCs , STs, and OBCs in elected offices and they have acquired strong local support. They have also become an important element in electoral politics and have gone on to form strong political parties in various regions . People from these disadvantages groups have largely made their way into government jobs as well as levels of educational institutions. (Sekhon, 50).
Unfortunately,however, only a relatively small proportion of the lower castes have benefited from these preferential policies . Even thought there is also more overt hostility and violence expressed against the lower castes and classes in many parts of India . For examples, in parts of Bihar, which is a state in eastern India , upper caste landowners formed a private army in 1994 called the Ranvir Sena to "protect" themselves from the lower castes. Although this was outlawed , the Ranvir Sena had carried out 20 massacres of Dalits by early 1999. Hostility is also expressed by the many people who support the removal of reserved government jobs and in institutions for technical education , particularly on the part of many from the traditionally higher castes who are economically disadvantages. Individual achievements , merit, as well as economic position are also still significantly affected by caste (Sekhon,51).
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